CRESP Published Manuscripts
Last Updated December 22, 2000
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Many of the 214 peer reviewed publications listed below include abstracts. Copies of full text articles can be requested from the CRESP Library by email or by phone at (732) 235-9604.

Titles:

A biologically-based dose-response model for developmental toxicology Author: Leroux, B.G., Other Author(s): W.M. Leisenring, S.H. Moolgavkar, and E.M. Faustman. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Risk Analysis 16(4): 449-458. Abstract: The methods currently used to evaluate the risk of developmental defects in humans from exposure to potential toxic agents do not reflect biological processes in extrapolating estimated risks to low doses and from test species to humans. We develop a mathematical model to describe aspects of the dynamic process of organogenesis, based on branching process models of cell kinetics. The biological information that can be incorporated into the model includes timing and rates of dynamic cell processes such as differentiation, migration, growth, and replication. The dose-response models produced can explain patterns of malformation rates as a function of both dose and time of exposure, resulting in improvements in risk assessment and understanding of the underlying mechanistic processes. To illustrate the use of the model, we apply it to the prediction of the effects of methylinercury on brain development in rats.

A canine model of familial mammary gland neoplasia Author: Schafer, K.A., Other Author(s): G. Kelly, R. Schrader, W.C. Griffith, B.A. Muggenburg. L.A. Tierney, J.F. Lechner, E.B. Janovitz, and F.F. Hahn. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Veterinary Pathology 35: 168-177. Abstract: Intact female Beagles from life-span studies in the Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute colony were examined for mammary tumor incidence. The breeding colony, founded in 1963, produced five generations from 28 founder females. After proportional hazards analysis, two maternal families were shown to have markedly different phenotypes, one susceptible and one resistant to mammary neoplasia, as compared with the entire colony. When tumors were subdivided into benign and malignant based on local invasiveness, familial differences in tumor incidence were preserved for each tumor type. Fifty-seven females in the susceptible family developed 149 benign and 39 malignant tumors, and 95 females in the resistant family developed 70 benign and 20 malignant tumors. The ratio of benign to malignant tumors of about 4:1 for both families was higher than expected. Using Kaplan-Mcier and log-rank analyses, the susceptible family had a 50% malignant tumor incidence by age 13.6 years, whereas the resistant family did not have a 50% incidence until 17.0 years (P = 0.0065). Because of marked censoring, Kaplan-Meier analyses could not provide an estimate of the 50% benign tumor incidence; mean incidence age was calculated instead. These estimates for benign tumors for susceptible and resistant families were 10.8 and 13.8 years (,P = 0.0001), respectively. Using X^2 tests, families had no differences in the occurrence of the types of benign (P = 0.098) or malignant (P = 0.194) tumors or in the ratio of benign to malignant tumors (P = 0.778). Immunohistocheniical analysis of malignant tumors ftom both families did not demonstrate differences in p53 mutation rate or pl85^erbB-2 expression. These results suggest that 1) genetic factors produce familial differences in the age of onset of both benign and malignant mammary tumors; histologic types do not segregate by family; 2) the ratio of benign to malignant tlunors is greater than formerly reported; and 3) neither p53 nor pl85^erbB-2 alterations are the basis for the familial predisposition.

A comparison of on-site hunters, sportsmen and the general public about recreational rates and future land use preferences for the Savannah River Site Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 43(2) 221-233. Abstract: ABSTRACT Management of ecosystems has been improved both by our consider to be suitablefuture land uses. This is particularly true with contaminated lands where decisions must be made about clean-up andfuture land use. In this paper I synthesize several surveys of public recreational rates and preferencesforfuture land use of the Savannah River Site (SRS), a Department of Energy (DoE) facility located in South Carolina. Four groups of people were interviewed: on-site hunters; sportsmen; local residents attending an event near Aiken, South Carolina; and the general public attending a festival in Columbia, South Carolina. The general public that engaged in recreational activities averaged 20 daysl year or morefor hunting andfishing, while sportsmen averaged over 50 dayslyear. All four groups rated maintaining SRS as a National Environmental Research Park (NERP) and using it for recreation as the highest preferred land uses. The general public rated hiking and camping higher than hunting and fishing, while sportsmen rated hunting higher than hiking and camping. All groups rated using SRS for homes as the lowest, or second lowest, preferred land use. There was disagreement on the ratings for industrial development, with people living closer to the site rating it higher than the general South Carolina population. These data can be used by local planners and managers in decision making regarding clean-up levels andfuture land use. The relative unanimity of views for cleaning up DoE sites, continued use of the site as a NERP and increased recreational use suggests that different groups of people share similar preferences for future use of SRS, and provides a useful paradigm for considering future land use decisions at other DoE sites nationwide. The relatively low ranking for housing and factories suggests that clean-up levels could be geared to future land use, such as recreation, which are less stringent than residential levels.

A distributed parameter physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model for dermal and inhalation exposure to volatile organic compounds Author: Roy, A., Other Author(s): C.P. Weisel, P.J. Lioy, and P.G. Georgopoulos. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Risk Analysis 16(2): 147-160. Abstract: Estimates of den-nal dose from exposures to toxic chemicals are typically derived using models that assume instantaneous establishment of steady-state dermal mass flux. However, dermal absorption theory indicates that this assumption is invalid for short-term exposures to volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). A generalized distributed parameter physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model (DP-PBPK), which describes unsteady state dermal mass flux via a partial differential equation (Fickian diffusion), has been developed for inhalation and dermal absorption of VOCS. In the present study, the DP-PBPK model has been parameterized for chloroform, and compared with two simpler PBPK models of chloroform. The latter arc lumped parameter models, employing ordinary differential equations, that do not account for the dermal absorption time lag associated with the accumulation of permanent chemical in tissue represented by permeability coefficients. All dure models were evaluated by comparing simulated post-exposure exhaled breath concentration profiles with measured concentrations following environmental chloroform exposures. The DP-PBPK model predicted a time-lag in the exhaled breath concentration profile, consistent with the experimental data. The DP-PBPK model also predicted significant volatilization of chloroform, for a simulated dermal exposure scenario. The end-exposure dermal dose predicted by the DP-PBPK model is similar to that predicted by the EPA recommended method for short-term exposures, and is significantly greater than the end-exposure dose predicted by the lumped parameter models. However, the net dermal dose predicted by the DP-PBPK model is substantially less than that predicted by the EPA method, due to the post-exposure volatilization predicted by the DP-PBPK model. Moreover, the net dermal dose of chloroform predicted by all three models was nearly the same, even though the lumped parameter models did not predict substantial volatilization.

A risk assessment for consumers of mourning doves Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): R.A. Kennamer, I.L. Brisbin Jr., and M. Gochfeld. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Risk Analysis 18(5): 563-573. Abstract: Recreational and subsistence hunters and anglers consume a wide range of species, including birds, mammals, fish and shellfish, some of which represent significant exposure pathways for environmental toxic agents. This study focuses on the Department of Energy's (DOE's) Savannah River Site (SRS), a former nuclear weapons production facility in South Carolina. The potential risk of contaminant intake from consuming mourning doves (Zenaida macroura), the most popular United States game bird, was examined under various risk scenarios. For all of these scenarios we used the mean tissue concentration of six metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, selenium, chromium, anganese) and radiocesium, in doves collected on and near SRS. We also estimated risk to a child consuming doves that had the maximum contaminant level. We used the cancer slope factor for radiocesium, the Environmental Protection Agencies Uptake/Biokinetic model for lead, and published reference doses for the other metals. As a result of our risk assessments we recommend management of water levels in contaminated reservoirs so that lake bed sediments are not exposed to use by gamebirds and other terrestrial wildlife. Particularly, measures should be taken to insure that the hunting public does not have access to such a site. Our data also indicate that doves on popular hunting areas are exposed to excess lead, suggesting that banning lead shot for doves, as has been done for waterfowl, is desirable.

A risk assessment for lead in birds Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1995 Citation: Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 45: 369-396. Abstract: Recreational and subsistence hunters and anglers consume a wide range of species, including birds, mammals, fish and shellfish, some of which represent significant exposure pathways for environmental toxic agents. This study focuses on the Department of Energy's (DOE's) Savannah River Site (SRS), a former nuclear weapons production facility in South Carolina. The potential risk of contaminant intake from consuming mouming doves (Zenaida macroura), the most popular United States game bird, was examined under various risk scenarios. For all of these scenarios we used the mean tissue concentration of six metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, selenium, chromium, man- ganese) and radiocesium, in doves collected on and near SRS. We also estimated risk to a child consuming doves that had the maximum contaminant level. We used the cancer slope factor for radiocesium, the Environmental Protection Agencies Uptake/Biokinetic model for lead, and published reference doses for the other metals. As a result of our risk assessments we recommend management of water levels in contaminated reservoirs so that take bed sediments are not exposed to use by gwnebirds and other terrestrial wildlife. Particularly, measures should be taken to insure that the hunting public does not have access to such a site. Our data also indicate that doves on popular hunting areas are exposed to excess lead, suggesting that banning lead shot for doves, as has been done for waterfowl, is desirable.

A unified kinetic approach to binary nucleation Author: Kevrekidis, P., Other Author(s): M. Lazaridis, Y. Drossinos, and P.G. Georgopoulos. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Journal of Chemical Physics 111: 8010-8012. Abstract:

Age differences in metals in the blood of Herring (Largus argentatus) and Franklin’s (Largus pipixcan) Gulls Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): and M. Gochfeld. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 33: 436-440. Abstract: Concentrations of heavy metals and selenium were measured in the blood of adult and young herring (Larus argentatus) and Franklin's (Larus pipixcan) gulls collected during the same breeding season in colonies in the New York Bight and in northwestern Minnesota, respectively. Concentrations were expected to be higher in young herring gulls collected in an urban, industrialized area, compared to young Franklin's gulls collected in a relatively pristine prairie marsh. Exposure is similar for the fledgling and adult gulls because by the time the blood of young gulls is drawn both adults and young have been eating foods from the surrounding region for two months; leading to the prediction that metal levels should be similar in adults and young. However, young Franklin's gulls had significantly higher levels of arsenic, cadmium, and manganese than adults; adults had significantly higher levels of mercury and selenium. Young herring gulls had significantly higher concentrations of arsenic and selenium, but lower levels of lead than adult herring gulls. lnterspecific comparisons indicated that young Franklin's gulls had significantly higher levels of cadmium than young herring gulls, and adult Franklin's gulls had higher levels of selenium and chromium than adult herring gulls, but for all other comparisons herring gulls had higher levels of metals in their blood. Young herring gulls chicks had higher arsenic, manganese, and selenium levels and lower cadmium and lead levels in 1993 than in 1994. Overall, the levels in the two species were usually within an order of magnitude.

American Indians, hunting, fishing rates, risk and the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Environmental Research Section A 80: 317-329. Abstract: Hunting, fishing, and recreational rates of 276 American Indians attending a festival at Fort Hall, near the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL), were examined. Nearly half of the sample lived on the Fort Hall Reservation, and half were American Indians from elsewhere in the western United States. An additional 44 White people attending the festival were also interviewed. The hypothesis that there are differences in hunting, fishing, and recreational rates as a function of tribal affiliation, educational level, gender, and age was examined. Information on hunting and fishing rates are central for understanding potential exposure scenarios for American Indians if the Department of Energy's INEEL lands are ever opened to pubic access, and the data are important because of the existence of tribal treaties that govern the legal and cultural rights of the Shoshone-Bannock regarding INEEL lands. Variations in hunting, fishing, and photography rates were explained by tribal affiliation (except fishing), gender, age, and schooling. Hunting rates were significantly higher for Indians (both those living on Fort Hall and others) than Whites. Men engaged in significantly higher rates of outdoor activities than women (except for photography). Potential and current hunting and fishing on and adjacent to INEEL was more similar among the local Whites and Fort Hall Indians than between these two groups and other American Indians.

An approach for estimation of contaminant release during utilization and disposal of municipal waste combustion residues Author: Kosson, D.S., Other Author(s): H.A. van der Sloot, and T.T. Eighmy. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Journal of Hazardous Materials 47: 43-75. Abstract: The use of appropriate leaching tests and leaching models can help to predict how constituents in municipal waste combustion residues will leach during either utilization or disposal scenarios. This paper presents a general approach for estimating constituent release from MWC residues under a variety of management scenarios through use of fundamental leaching, site specific design and regional climatic parameters. Leaching behavior is categorized as being controlled by either (i) constituent availabiltiy or solubility for percolation-dominated scenarios with loose granula residues, or, (ii) controlled by diffusion for flow around scenarios with compacted granular residues or monolithic products containing residues. Three broad scenarios involving either disposal or utilization are used to illustrate the approach. The scenarios are applied to bottom ash, combined ash and APC residue. In two specific cases pertinent to bottom ash utilization, field data are used to verify the approach. Field data are also used to verify the approach for diposal of combined ash. These methodologies hold promise for serving as a basis for evaluating and comparing potential environmental impacts from different management scenarios for combustion residues and for other waste materials.

Animals as sentinel of human health hazards of environmental chemicals Author: van der schalie W.H., Other Author(s): H.S. Gardner, J.A. Bantle, C.T. De Rosa, R.A. Finch, J.S. Reif, R.H. Reuter, L.C. Backer, J. Burger, L.C.Folmar, and W.S.Stokes. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Environmental Health Perpectives 107(4) 309-315. Abstract: A workshop titled 'Using Sentinel Species Data to address the Potential Human Health Effects of Chemicals in the Environment," sponsored by the U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research, the National Center for Environmental Assessment of the EPA,and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, was held to consider the use of sentinel and surrogate animal species data for evaluating the potential human health effects of chemicals in the environment. The workshop took a broad view of the sentinel species concept, and included mammalian and non- mammalian species, companion animals, food animals, fish, amphibians, and other wildlife. Sentinel species data included observations of wild animals in field situations as well as experimer@ tal animal data. Workshop participants identified potential applications for sentinel species data derived from monitoring programs or serendipitous observations and explored the potential use of such information in human health hazard and risk assessments and for evaluating causes or mecha- nisins of eff-ect. Although it is unlikely that sentinel species data will be used as the sole determina- tive factor in evaluating human health concerns, such data can be useful as for additional weight of evidence in a risk assessment, for providing early warning of situations requiring further study, or for monitoring the course of remedial activities. Attention was given to the factors impeding the application of sentinel species approaches and their acceptance in the scientific and regulatory coni-- munities. Workshop participants identified a number of critical research needs and opportunities for interagency collaboration that could help advance the use of sentinel species approaches.

Application of a biologically-based RFD estimation method to tetrachlorobibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) mediated immune suppression and enzyme induction Author: McGrath, L.F., Other Author(s): P. Georgopoulos, and M.A. Gallo. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Risk Analysis 16(4): 439-448. Abstract: The current methods for a reference dose (RfD) determination can be enhanced through the use of biologically-based dose-response analysis. Methods developed here utilizes information from tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) to focus on noncancer endpoints, induction. Dose-response analysis, using the Sigmoid-Emax (EMAX) function, is applied to multiple studies to determine consistency of response. Through the use of multiple studies and statistical comparison of arameter estimates, it was demonstrated that the slope estimates across studies were very consistent. This adds confidence to the subsequent effect dose estimates. This study also compares traditional methods of risk assessment such as the NOAEL/safety factor to a modified benchmark dose approach which is introduced here. Confidence in the estimation of an effect dose (ED10) was improved through the use of multiple datasets. This is key to adding confidence to the benchmark dose estimates. In addition, the Sigrnoid-Emax function when applied to dose-response data using nonlinear regression analysis provides a significantly improved fit to data increasing confidence in parameter estimates which subsequently improve effect dose estimates.

Assessing risk requires much broader view Author: Karr, J.R. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1995 Citation: Daily Journal of Commerce, Seattle, WA, Thursday, August 24. Abstract: Companies, whether large corporations or small enterprises, assess risks all the time. Risk assessment is an intergral part of every business decisions, from staying competitive to minimizing hazards for employees, customers, and the public. In fact, risk assessment is a survival mechanism throughout the natural world. Birds constantly assess the dangers in their environment and react to reduce risk. A bird looking for food must "decide" which prey is worth pursuing and which is not because pursuit will attract predators. When it is hungry, a bird may take risks it would otherwise avoid; it may be more cautious if it has offsprings to protect. A bird survives if it "assesses" risks and behave appropriately; flawed risk assessment can mean death. Individual humans assess risks too, of course. Smoking, drinking, and riding a motorcycle mean different risks, as does investing retirement funds in savings accounts, stocks, or commodity futures. Farmers take risk each year deciding which crops to plant and which pesticides or fertilizers to apply. What should they spend on pesticides to reap a profitable crop without threatening their own health or that of their consumers? Societies also assess risks. In theory, society attempts to minimize "environmental" risk, conventionally defined only in terms of risks to human health; for this reason, end-of-pipe control of toxic effluents forms the core of most modern environment risk management. Yet societies need to minimize ecological risks as well. Humans behave as if they did not depend on natural systems and thus need not environment risk management. As the scale of human activities grows, degradation of ecological systems worsens. Ecological degradation threatens supplies of food and fiber and many ecological services that living systems provide to humans and other organisms (processing waste, purifying water, cleaning the air, and generating soil.) What will happen if we fail to recognize and avert to the ecological systems that furnish -free- these goods and services?

Attitudes about recreation, environmental problems, and estuarine health along the Jersey shore Author: Burger J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Environmental Management. 22: 869-876. Abstract: Management of ecosystems has advanced by an improvement in our understanding not only of how ecosystems function, but of how people perceive their functioning and what they consider to be environmental problems within those systems. Central to such management is understanding how people view estuaries. In this article I explore the perceptions and attitudes of people about coastal recreation, environmental problems, and future land use along the New Jersey shore (USA) by interviewing people who attended a duck decoy and craft show on Barnegat Bay. The people who were interviewed engaged in more days of fishing than any other recreational activity and engaged in camping the least. There were significant differences in recreational rates as a function of gender and location of residence, with men hunting and fishing more than women and photographing less than women. Jet skis were perceived as the most severe environmental problem, with chemical pollution, junk, oil runoff and overfishing as second level problems. Birds were perceived as not an environmental problem at all. Fishing, hiking, preservation, and camping ranked as the highest preferred future land uses for the two sites examined (Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, Naval Weapons Station Earle). The preferred future land uses for these two sites, which are not under consideration for land-use changes, were very similar to those of people living near the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site in South Carolina, despite the media attention and considerations of nuclear storage.

Attitudes and perceptions about ecological resources and hazards of people living around the Savannah River Site Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): J. Sanchez, J.W. Gibbons, T. Benson, J. Ondrof, R. Ramos, M.J. McMahon, K. Gaines, L. Lord, M. Fulmer, and M. Gochfeld. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 57: 195-211. Abstract: Although considerable attention is devoted to environmental monitoring and assessment with respect to both pollutants and the status of particular plant or animal populations, less attention is devoted to assessing people's attitudes about the relative importance of ecological resources. In this paper we examine the attitudes and perceptions about ecological resources of people living around the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site (SRS), in South Carolina. Our overall hypothesis is that people who are directly affected by the possible outcomes and consequences of a particular hazard (i.e., those people employed at SRS) will undervalue the risks and overvalue the potential benetits from future land uses that favor continued site activity, compared to people who live near but are not employed at SRS. We interviewed 286 people attending the Aiken Trials horse show on 14 March 1997. There were few gender differences, although men hunted and fished more than women, women ranked three environmental concerns as more severe than did men, and women were more concerned about the effect of SRS on property values. Maintenance of SRS as a National Environmental Research Park ranked first as a future land use; nuclear production ranked second, followed by hunting and hiking. Only residential development ranked very low as a future land use. There were many differences as a function of employment history at SRS: 1) people who work at SRS think that the federal government should spend funds to clean up all nuclear facilities, and they think less money should be spent on other environmental problems than did non-employees, 2) people who work at SRS ranked continued current uses of SRS higher than did people who never worked at SRS, and 3) people who work at SRS are less concerned about the storage of nuclear material or accidents at the site than are people who never worked at the site.

Attitudes and perceptions about ecological resources, hazards, and future land use of people living near the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): D. E. Roush Jr., J. Sanchez, J. Ondrof, R. Ramos, M. McMahon, and M. Gochfeld. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 60: 145-161. Abstract: Although considerable attention is devoted to environmental monitoring and assessment with respect to both pollutants and the status of particular plant or animal populations, less attention is devoted to assessing people's attitudes about the relative importance of ecological resources. In this paper we examine the attitudes and perceptions about ecological resources of people living around the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site (SRS), in South Carolina. Our overall hypothesis is that people who are directly affected by the possible outcomes and consequences of a particular hazard (i.e. , those people employed at SRS) will undervalue the risks and overvalue the potential benefits from future land uses that favor continued site activity, compared to people who live near but are not employed at SRS. We interviewed 286 people attending the Aiken Trials horse show on 14 March 1997. There were few gender differences, although men hunted and fished more than women, women ranked three environmental concerns as more severe than did men, and women were more concerned about the effect of SRS on property values. Maintenance of SRS as a National Environmental Research Park ranked first as a future land use; nuclear production ranked second, followed by hunting and hiking. Only residential development ranked very low as a future land use. There were many differences as a function of employment history at SRS: 1) people who work at SRS think that the federal government should spend funds to clean up all nuclear facilities, and they think less money should be spent on other environmental problems than did non-employees, 2) people who work at SRS ranked continued current uses of SRS higher than did people who never worked at SRS, and 3) people who work at SRS are less concerned about the storage of nuclear material or accidents at the site than are people who never worked at the site.

Attitudes toward environmental hazards: Where do toxic wastes fit Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): M. Martin, K. Cooper, and M. Gochfeld. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 51: 109-121. Abstract: The public is continually faced with making decisions about the risks associated with environmental hazards, and along with managers and government officials, must make informed decisions concerning possible regulation, mitigation, and restoration of degraded sites or other environmental threats. We explored the attitudes regarding several environmental hazards of six groups of people: undergraduate science majors, undergraduate non-science majors, graduate students of environmental health, risk assessment. and nonscience disciplines, as well as non-students over 35 years of age. We had predicted that there would be significant differences in attitudes between science and non-science majors and as a function of age, with younger science students showing the greatest concern. Relative concerns could be divided into three discrete classes (in descending order of concern): 1) general ecological problems (cutting tropical forests, polluting groundwater, trash along the coasts, lead in drinking water, and acid rain), 2) radon and nuclear wastes, and finally, 3) specific nuclear waste facilities, chromium. fertilizers and pesticides, and electromagnetic waves. Attitudes were consistent, whether asked about the severity of the environmental problem or whether they felt funds should be expended to solve the problems. Attitudes about spending money to develop methods to evaluate risk fell in the middle level of concern. There were no major differences among classes of college-age students, or between them and. older non-students.

Benefits versus risks from mammography: A critical reassessment Author: Mettler, F.A., Other Author(s): A.C. Upton, C.A. Kelsey, R.N. Ashby, R.D. Rosenberg, and MN. Linver. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Cancer 77: 903-909. Abstract: The use of mammography has increased rapidly over the last decade. The justification for mammographic examinations is the potential benefit they provide in detecting breast cancer at an early stage and reducing mortality. However, this benefit must be balanced against the associated potential risk of radiation carcinogenesis, economic costs, and a number of other factors. Most publications to date have used radiation risk factors and data from studies that were published over a decade ago, which now have been superseded by the results of more recent epidemiological studies.

Biological effects of 137CsCl injected in beagle dogs of different ages Author: Nikula, K.J., Other Author(s): B.A. Muggenburg, W.C. Griffith, W.W. Carlton, T.E. Fritz, and B.B. Boecker. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Radiation Research 146: 536-547. Abstract: The toxicity of 137Cs in the beagle dog was investigated at the Inhalation Toxicology Research Institute (ITRI) and Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) as part of programs to evaluate the biological effects of both radionuclides in atomic bomb fallout and internally deposited fission-product radionuclides. In the ITRI study, young adult dogs were exposed once by intravenous injection to a range of 137Cs concentrations; the results have recently been published (Nikula et al., Radiat. Res. 142, 347-361, 1995). The purpose of the present report is to summarize the ANL study and to compare the results of the two studies. At ANL, 63 dogs in three age groups (15 juveniles, 142-151 days old; 38 young adults, 388-427 days old; and 10 middle-aged dogs, 1387-2060 days old) were given 137CS intravenously at levels (61-162 MBqlkg) near those expected to be lethal within 30 days after injection. There were 17 control dogs from the same colony. Twenty-three of the dogs injected with 137Cs, including all middle-aged dogs, died within 52 days after injection due to hematopoietic cell damage resulting in severe pancytopenia that led to fatal hemorrhage and/or septicemia. The other significant early effect was damage to the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules of all male dogs. These early effects are the same as those reported for the dogs injected with 137Cs at ITRI. In addition, the design of the ANL study revealed an age- and gender-related differential radiosensitivity for early effects: The middle-aged dogs died significantly earlier due to complications of hematological dyserasia compared to the juvenile and young adult dogs, and the middle-aged females died significantly earlier than the middle-aged males. The most significant non-neoplastic late effects in the 137Cs-injected dogs from ANL and ITRI were atrophy of the germinal epithelium of seminiferous tubules with azoospermia, and a significant dose-dependent decrease in survival. However, the survival of the ANL dogs was decreased more than that of the ITRI dogs at similar radiation doses from 137Cs. Numerous neoplasms occurred at many different sites in the dogs injected with 137Cs at ANL and ITRI. Two differences in the findings of the two studies were that (1) there was an increased risk for malignant thyroid neoplasms in the ANL male dogs injected with 137Cs, but not the ITRI dogs of either gender, and (2) there was an increased relative risk for benign neoplasms excluding mammary neoplasms in the ITRI dogs injected with 137Cs, but not the ANL dogs. In both groups, there were dose-related increased incidences of malignant neoplasms, malignant neoplasms excluding mammary neoplasms, all sarcomas considered as a group, all non-mammary carcinomas considered as a group and malignant liver neoplasms. In summary, the similarity of the findings between the two studies and the dose-response relationships for survival and for large groupings of neoplasms suggests that these results are consistent findings in 137Cs-injected dogs and might be dose-related late effects in humans exposed to sufficient amounts of internally deposited 137CS.

Biological effects of inhaled 144CeC13 in beagle dogs Author: Hahn, F.F., Other Author(s): B.B. Boecker, W.C. Griffith, and B.A. Muggenburg. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Inhalation Research 147: 92-108. Abstract: The biological effects of 144Ce were studied in beagle dogs that were exposed to graded activity levels of 144CeCl3 via a single, brief inhalation exposure and observed for their life span. The long-term retained body burdens ranged from 0.06 to 13 MBq/kg with a median of 1.2 MBq/kg. After a short residence time in the lung, most of the 144Ce was translocated to liver and skeleton, where the 144Ce was retained with a half-time approaching the physical half-life of 144Ce, 284 days. Significant radiation doses were delivered to the lung, 28 Gy (median) and 2.5-370 Gy (range); liver, 68 Gy (median) and 6.1-250 Gy (range); and skeleton, 21 Gy (median) and 1.9-100 Gy (range). Lesions induced by the ß-particle radiation were noted in the lung, liver, skeleton, bone marrow, and oral and nasal mucosae closely associated with bone. Early deaths (within 2.5 years) were generally related to hematological dyscrasia, radiation pneumonitis, or hepato-cellular degeneration and atrophy. Neoplasms that occurred relatively early, from 2.2-6.8 years after exposure, were noted in the liver, bone, bone marrow and oral mucosa closely associated with bone. Neoplasms that occurred later, beyond 7 years after exposure, were noted in the liver, lung and nasal mucosa closely associated with bone. Increased numbers of neoplasms were not found in two other organs that had relatively high radiation doses, namely the thyroid and kidney. Only one primary bone tumor was noted, but 11 tumors of bone-associated tissues (oral and nasal mucosae and bone marrow) were found. Radiation doses and effects in tissues adjacent to bone, especially those of epithelial or marrow origin, should be considered when determining risks from internally deposited bone-seeking radionuclides, such as 144Ce . The property of 144Ce in depositing on and remaining associated with bone surfaces for long times may be an important factor in the radiation dose to bone marrow and epithelium adjacent to bone.

Biological monitoring: Essential foundation for ecological risk assessment Author: Karr, J.R., Other Author(s): and E.W. Chu. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 3(6): 993-1004. Abstract: "Risk-based decision making" has become an often-heard buzzword in Congress and government agency circles. The idea implies that policies based on scientific risk assessment---of human health or ecological risks-will be realistic, fair, and cost effective. But for policies developed through risk-based decision making to fulfill this promise, the foundations and endpoints for risk assessment must be properly conceived and relevant for sustaining critical societal needs. Environments in which living systems cannot sustain themselves cannot support human affairs. We therefore argue that the first, most important step for ecological risk assessment is to set biological endpoints; further, each step in ecological risk assessment should be informed by data from biological monitoring. The measurement endpoints (what is measured) and the assesment endpoints (the ecological goods and services society seeks to protect) must be explicitly biological. Ecological risk assessment will miss its mark if it relies on inappropriate surrogates-such as chemical measures assumed to reflect the health of a biota---or if it is only a veneer, a simple substitution of ecological terminology in another pollution-control or human health risk assessment process.

Biologically based dose-response models for developmental toxicants: Lessons from methylmercury Author: Faustman, E.M., Other Author(s): T.A. Lewandowski, R.A. Ponce, and S.M. Bartell. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Inhalation Toxicology 11: 559-572. Abstract: Risk assessment methods commonly used to evaluate the developmental toxicity of environmental exposures have historically focused on the identification of no adverse effect levels (NOAEL) rather than dose- response modeling. While NOAELS, which are based on identifying the highest level of exposure that does not increase the incidence of an adverse developmental effect, are used to define "acceptably safe" exposure concentrations, they do not allow one to predict response rates across a range of exposures (Faustman & Bartell, 1997). Benchmark dose methods, which use dose-response models fit to the available data, have gained attention because they address several limitations inherent in NOAELS. Along with the increased emphasis on using benchmark-dose models for developmental toxicant risk assessment has come increased attention on establishing and characterizing appropriate dose-response models for developmental toxicants (Allen et al., 1994a, 1994b; Faustman et al., 1994; Faustman & Bartell, 1997; Kavlock et al., 1995). Establishing dose-response models based on underlying biological processes, or biologically based dose-response (BBDR) modeling, has been proposed as a logical basis for establishing these dose-response models. For example, in some cases the use of biologically informed models for benchmark dose calculations has been shown to improve fit of dose-response curves to observed experimental values (Allen et al., 1994b). While toxicological experiments often examine frank disease resulting from relatively high exposures, biological information that is incorporated into BBDR models can provide a basis for defining the dose-response relationship for subtle responses associated with lower, environmentally relevant exposures (e.g., Geacintov & Swenberg, 1991). Of particular interest in our research are the design and application of BBDR models in the assessment of developmental toxicants. Biological research findings have been used to develop BBDR cancer models; however, fewer models have been developed for noncancer end-points. In those cases where experimental data has been used to model developmental toxicity, the resultant models are generally biologically informed, rather than biologically based. For our purposes in this article we define biologically informed as meaning that a model is consistent with biological processes and may consider biological constraints or relationships, though the model may not directly model the biological process. For example, Rai and van Ryzin described a two-stage probability model for developmental toxicity that assumed teratogenicity was contingent upon maternal toxicity (Rai & Van Ryzin, 1985). Faustman et al. broadened the application of this model for developmental toxicity so that adverse birth outcomes were no longer strictly dependent on maternal toxicity; however, no alternative mechanistic pathways for developmental toxicity were proposed (Faustman et al., 1989). Other researchers at that time experimented with alternative statistical approaches to modeling dose-response relationships of the type observed with developmental toxicants and that incorporated basic biological observations (Chen & Kodell, 1989; Gaylor, 1988; Gaylor & Chen, 1993; Gaylor & Razzaghi, 1992; Kimmel & Gaylor, 1988; Kimmel et al., 1989; Williams, 1987). More recent research has ventered on BBDR models in which the model variables, their values, and definition of their interrelationships have been established according to proposed biological processes. The multi-stage model of carcinogenesis stands as one of the first BBDR models that used information derived from experimental observation (Armitage & Doll, 1957). Current BBDR cancer models are generally more sophisticated in their ability to directly model the proposed underlying biology of carcinogenesis than the first cancer models and can directly incorporate information from new animal and human research to improve models. Such models can include knowledge about the number and kinetics of specific mutations and cellular proliferation responses leading to tumor formation (Luebeck & Moolgavkar, 1996; Moolgavkar & Luebeck, 1995; Moolgavkar & Venzon, 1979; Portier et al., 1996; Sherman & Portier, 1.996). For evaluation of developmental toxicity, basic scientific research on understanding the biological relationships of fetal death, malformation, and altered birth weights following environmental exposure has been used to develop biologically informed dose response models (e.g., Catalano et al., 1993, 1994; Krewski & Zhu, 1994; Kupper et al., 1986; Ryan, 1992). BBDR models of developmental toxicity have been developed for specific dys- morphogenic processes, such as palatogenesis (Freni & Zapisek, 1991), and for specific teratogens, such as for 5-fluorouracil (Kavlock & Setzer, 1996; Shuey et al., 1994, 1995). In this article, we describe the development of a biologically based dose-response model for the developmental toxicity of methylmercury (MeHg), which is a well-recognized human and animal neurodevelopmental toxicant. The biological basis for the model lies in the assumption that the developmental toxicity of MeHg can be explained by its ability to alter rates of cell proliferation, differentiation, and cell loss in the developing central nervous system (CNS), and thus reduce the number of properly functioning neurons in the mature brain. For the purposes of this model, we evaluate midbrain development in the fetal rat during the period of gestation days 12-17, as these gestational days are critically important to the establishment of all major nerve foci in the midbrain. We review the rationale for model development, how experimentally derived biological information was used in characterizing model variables, and future directions for improvement and wider application of this BBDR model.

Biomarkers of environmental benzene exposure Author: Weisel, C., Other Author(s): R. Yu, A. Roy, and P.G. Georgopoulos. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Environmental Health Perspectives 104(Supplement 6): 1141-1146. Abstract: Environmental exposures to benzene result in increases in body burden that are reflected in various biomarkers of exposure, including benzene in exhaled breath, benzene in blood and urinary trans-tran-muconic acid and S-phenylmercapturic acid. A review of the literature indicates that these biomarkers can be used to distinguish populations with different levels of exposure (such as smokers from nonsmokers and occupationally exposed from environmentally exposed populations) and to determine differences in metabolism. Biomarkers in humans have shown that the percentage of benzene metabolized by the ring-opening pathway is greater at environmental exposures than that at higher occupational exposures, a trend similar to that found in animal studies. This suggests that the dose-response curve is nonlinear; that potential different metabolic mechanisms exist at high and low doses; and that the validity of a linear extrapolation of adverse effects measured at high doses to a population exposed to lower, environmental levels of benzene is uncertain. Time-series measurements of the biomarker, exhaled breath, were used to evaluate a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model. Biases were identified between the PBPK model predictions and experimental data that were adequately described using an empihcal compartmental model. It is suggested that a mapping of the PBPK model to a compartmental model can be done to optimize the parameters in the PBPK model to provide a future framework for developing a population physiologically based pharmacokinetic model.

Bombs and butterflies: A case study of the challenge of post cold war environmental planning and management for the US nuclear weapons Sites Author: Greenberg, M., Other Author(s): K. Lowrie, D. Kreuckeberg, H. Mayer, and D. Simon. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 40(6): 739-750. Abstract: When the cold war ended, the United States stopped developing, testing and building nuclear weapons at nearly all of its former nuclear weapon sites. The Department of Energy (DOE) began a massive environmental remediation programme, which includes engaging surrounding communities in a future land use planning process. Using the Savannah River site as an example, we show that this process faces large obstacles, especially a legacy of mistrust of the DoE and organizational limitations at the federal and local government scales. These hinder open dialogue about future land use. The authors suggest three planning principles for future land use planning and organizational issues that must be addressed before these can be fruitfullyy explored.

Bridging the gap between human and ecological health Author: Karr, J.R. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Ecosystem Health 3: 197-199. Abstract: Early threats to human helth and well-being came from the environmental --vector-carried diseases, predators, famine, combat. As human populations grew and developed agriculture, permanent setttlements were established and new threats arose. Contagious diseases moved from domesticated pets and livestock to humans. Sixty-five human diseases are thought to have originated from cattle (e.g. small pox, measles, TB) ; 65 came from dogs; 42, including influenza, from pigs; and one, the common cold, from horses (Ponting 1991). Diseases spread more quickly in the crowed conoditions of villages, towns, and cities; inadequate sanitiation was also a problem. These movements continue today as demonstrated by Lyme disease, Ebola fever, and just this year, a new strain of influenza struck humans, transferred from pigs in the Far East. The industrial revolution brought relief from some of these threats wastewater treatment, for example, reduced the threat of waterborne diseases. But new technologies generate new threats ranging from toxic inudstrial chemicals to global transportation systems that speed the spread of greater variety of diseases. Still today, the health challenges we face are changing constantly. Technological advances have in many respects improved health care but that technology also is a douhle-edged sword. Widespread use and abuse antibiotics, for example, stimulates antibiotic resistance, demonstrating that the threats themselves evolves. And the array of threats changes as well. Societt needs health care strategies to deal with evolution on so many fronts. The papers in this issue came from a special plenary session of the 1996 meeting of the International Society for Environmental Epidemiology (Edmonton, Albert, Cananda). The session's theme--"Ecosystem Health: Bruidging the Gap"-- acknowledged that human health is not longer challenged solely by familiar contagious diseases to the spread of toxic chemicals.

Carbon tetrachloride degradation: Effect of microbial growth substrate and vitamin B12 content Author: Zou, S., Other Author(s): H.D. Stensel, and J.F. Ferguson. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 200X Citation: Environmental Science and Technology 34 (9): 1751 -1757. Abstract: The microbial degradation kinetics of carbon tetrachloride (CT) under reducing conditions was investigated for different cultures, fed with 1,2-propanediol, dextrose, propionaldehyde, or acetate and nitrate, in the anaerobic step of an anaerobic/aerobic operation sequence. Methanogensis was inhibited due to the aerobic step. CT biodegradation rates followed first-order kinetics with respect to CT concentration and were not affected by the presence of the growth substrate. CT degradation rates increased linearly with higher intracellular vitamin B12 content. The culture fed 1,2-propanediol had the highest vitamin B12 content, which was 3.8, 4.7, and 16 times that of the propionaldehyde-, dextrose-, and acetate-fed cultures, respectively, and its first-order degradation rate constant was 2.8, 4.5, 6.0 times that for those cultures respectively. No CT degradation occurred with culture liquid, suggesting that intracellular factors were responsible for CT degradation. The propanediol culture was able to sustain a constant CT degradation rate for a 20-day test period without substrate addition. Compared to a propanediol-fed culture grown under anaerobic condition only, the propanediol culture grown under the sequential anaerobic/aerobic condition resulted in more biomass growth and a greater CT degradation rate per unit of propanediol fed, although its CT degradation rate per unit of biomass was lower.

Characterization of soil adherence to skin: Impact of historical misinterpretation of the Que Hee et al. Data Author: Kissel, J.C. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1995 Citation: Risk Analysis 15 (6): 613-614. Abstract: Replacement of point estimates of exposure parameters with probabilistic descriptions that incorporate knowledge of the uncertainty and variability of those parameters is a worthy goal. The attractiveness of that goal should not, however, overshadow traditional requirements for plausibility and reproducibility of parameter derivations. Recently Finley et aL(l) proposed a probability density function (PDF) for soil adherence to skin based on data obtained from the prior literature. Individual distributions constructed from each of six data sources were sampled to produce an overall PDF. The mean, median and 95th percentile of a distribution ostensibly bootstrapped from the data of Que Hee et al. (2) are presented in Table 1. A previous interpretation of the Que Hee et aL data by Sedman(3) produced the point estimate shown in the fourth colunm of Table 1. Sedman's estimate, which is the basis for the lower limit of the default range in EPA's most recent dermal guidance (4) is much larger than the 95th percentile of the distribution generated by Finley et aL Finley et al. cite Sedman's work, but offer no explanation of the apparent discrepancy between their PDF and prior interpretation of the same data. Examination of the original source of the data in question reveals that both interpretations are incorrect.

Characterizing the variability in adult human nasal airway dimensions Author: Guilmette, R.A., Other Author(s): Y.S. Cheng, and W.C. Griffith. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Annals of Occupational Hygiene 41 (Supplement 4): 491-496. Abstract:

Chronic cigarette smoke exposure increases the pulmonary retention and radiation dose of 239 Pu inhaled as 239Pu02 by F344 rats Author: Finch, G.L., Other Author(s): D.L. Lundgren, E.B. Barr, B.T. Chen, W.C. Griffith, C.H. Hobbs, M.D. Hoover, K.J. Nikula, and J.L. Mauderly. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Health Physics 75(6): 597-609. Abstract: As a portion of a study to examine how chronic cigarette smoke exposure might alter the risk of lung tuniors from inhaled 239PuO2, in rats, the effects of smoke exposure on alpha-particle lung dosimetry over the life-span of exposed rats were determined. Male and female rats were exposed to inhaled 239PuO2, alone or in combination with cigarette smoke. Animals exposed to filtered air alone served as controls for the smoke exposure. Whole-body exposure to mainstream smoke diluted to concentrations of either 100 or 250 mg total particulate matter m^-3 (LCS or UCS, respectively) began at 6 wk of age and continued for 6 h d^-1, 5 d wk^-1, for 30 mo. A single, pernasal, acute exposure to 239PuO2, was given to all rats (control, LCS and HCS) at 12 wk of age. Exposure to cigarette smoke caused decreased body weight gains in a concentration dependent manner. Lung-to-body weight ratios were increased in smoke-exposed rats. Rats exposed to cigarette smoke before the 239PuO2, exposure deposited less 239Pu in the lung than did controls. Except for male rats exposed to LCS, exposure to smoke retarded the clearance of 239Pu from the lung compared to control rats through study termination at 870 d after 239PuO2 exposure.Radiation doses to lungs were calculated by sex and by exposure group for rats on study for at least 360 d using modeled body weight changes, lung-to-body weight ratios, and standard dosimetric calculations. For both sexes, estimated lifetime radiation doses from the time of 239PuO2 exposure to death were 3.8 Gy, 4.4 Gy, or 6.7 Gy for the control, LCS, or HCS exposure groups, respectively. Assuming an approximately linear dose-response relationship between radiation dose and lung neoplasm incidence, approximate increases of 20% or 80% in tumor incidence over controls would be expected in rates exposed to 239PuO2 and LCS or 239PuO2 and HCS, respectively.

Cleaning it up and closing it down: Land use issues at Rocky Flats Author: Lowrie, K., Other Author(s): and M. Greenberg. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Federal Facilities Environmental Journal 10(1) Spring 69-79. Abstract: Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Sitel a former nuclear weapons production plant near Denver, Colorado, is scheduled for complete closure within the next decade. A number of important land use issues remain unresolved. High levels of uncertainty about future uses and dependence on decisions from DOE Headquarters regarding the fate of Plutonium make it difficult to produce a land use plan to guide cleanup and reuse decisions, and threaten the site's ability to achieve the accelerated cleanup milestone set for 2006. We recommend a scenario-based participative land use planning process where competing interests, costs, risks and benefits of alternate future uses are made apparent to all on-site and off-site stakeholders.

Clinical report: Apparent paralytic shellfish poisoning in captive Herring Gulls fed commercial scallops Author: Gochfeld, M., Other Author(s): and J. Burger. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Toxicon 36(2): 411-415. Abstract: This report describes an acute poisoning event observed in captive herring gull (Larus argentatus) hicks fed a batch of store-bought scallops. They developed a characteristic acute svndrome that has not hitherto been reported in birds and the cause of which remains to be identified. We suggest that it is a variant of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) insofar as it was paralytic and caused by shellfish. However, analyses by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to identify known toxins (saxitoxins. revetoxins, domoic acid) in the scallops were negative.

Comments on “An approach for modeling noncancer dose responses with an emphasis on uncertainty” and "A probablistic framework for the reference dose(probablistic R&D) Author: Bartell, S.M., Other Author(s): and E.M. Faustman. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Risk Analysis 18(6): 663-664. Abstract:

Comparison of the disposition of butadine epoxides in Sprague-Dawley rats and B6C3F1 mice following a single and repeated exposures to 1,3-butadiene via inhalation Author: Thornton-Manning, J.R., Other Author(s): A.R. Dahl, W.E. Bechtold, W.C. Griffith, and R.F. Henderson. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Toxicology 123: 125-134. Abstract: 1,3-Butadiene (BD), a compound used extensively in the rubber industry, is a potent carcinogen in mice and a weak carcinogen in rats in chronic carcinogenicity bioassays. While many chemicals are known to alter their own metabolism after repeated exposures, the effect of exposure prior to BD on its in vivo metabolism has not been reported. The purpose of the present research was to examine the effect of repeated exposure to BD on tissue concentrations of two mutagenic BD metabolites, butadiene monoepoxide (BDO) and butadiene diepoxide (BD02). Concentrations of BD epoxides were compared in several tissues of rats and mice following a single exposure or ten repeated exposures to a target concentration of 62.5 ppm BD. Female Sprague-Dawley rats and female B6C3F, mice were exposed to BD for 6 h or 6 h x 10 days. BDO and BDO, were quantified in blood and several other tissues following preparation by cryogenic vacuum distillation and analysis by multidimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Blood and lung BDO concentrations did not differ significantly (P < 0.05) between the two exposure regimens in either species. Following multiple exposures to BD, BDO levels were 5- and 1.6-fold higher (P < 0.05) in mammary tissue and 2- and 1.4-fold higher in fat tissue of rats and mice, respectively, as compared with single exposures. BDO, levels also increased in rat fat tissue following multiple exposures to BD. However, in mice, levels of this metabolite decreased by 15% in fat, by 28% in mammary tissue and by 34% in lung tissue following repeated exposures to BD. The finding that the mutagenic epoxide BDO, which is the precursor to the highly mutagenic BDO2, accumulates in rodent fat may be important in assessing the potential risk to humans from inhalation of BD.

Compensating government workers exposed to radiation Author: Upton, A.C., Other Author(s): R. Wilson. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Risk in Perspective (Harvard Center for Risk Analysis) 8(7):1-4. Abstract:

Computed tomography of air pollutants using radial scanning path-integrated optical remote sensing Author: Hashmonay, R.A., Other Author(s): M.G. Yost, and C.F. Wu. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Atmospheric Environment 33: 267-274. Abstract: We propose a novel application of computed tomography (CT) for path-integrated optical remote sensing of air pollutants. We conducted a preliminary study with data obtained from simulated scanning of non-overlapping radial beam segments through Gaussian test distributions and experimentally measured test maps. The smooth basis function minimization (SBFM) algorithm, which fits parametric distributions rather than fitting individual pixel concentrations, was used to reconstruct two-dimensional concentration maps from this beam geometry. The results show that quite good reconstructions are possible with this approach. In contrast to the complex beam geometries proposed in the past for CT, this technique could be applied directly to air monitoring data from a variety of current optical sensing instruments. This development could vastly broaden the application of CT to obtain rapid reconstructions of ambient air pollution data.

Conflict resolution in coastal waters: The case of personal watercraft Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): and J. Leonard. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Marine Policy 24: 61-67. Abstract: The number of personal watercraft (PWC) used in coastal and inland waterways has increased recently, potentially disturbing people, fisheries activities, and wildlife and recreational resources. In 1997 we examined the behavior of nesting Common Terns as a function of exposure to PWC and other boats. PWCs traveled faster than motorboats near nesting islands, and came closer to birds. The number of terns that flew up in response to PWCs was greater than to motorboats. On one long-studied tern island, the terns suffered nearly total reproductive failure in 1996 and 1997. Because of these adverse effects, an educational and enforcement campaign was initiated in 1998. Public meetings included presentations by scientists, marine police, state conservation officials, PWC associations, marina owners, and the general public. In addition, an educational campaign was aimed at local PWC rental businesses and docks, and additional signs were posted around tern nesting islands. These measures proved effective: PWC traffic around the nesting islands was reduced, most PWCs that passed the tern nesting island did not venture outside the channel, and most PWCS reduced their speed. Although these measures did not eliminate the problem, they reduced the disturbance to the birds in 1998 and 1999, allowing increased reproductive success, representing a successful co-management program.

Consumption Advisories and Compliance: The fishing public and the deamplification of risk Author: Burger. J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 43(4): 471-488 Abstract: ABSTRACT Managers and regulators have recognized that the fishing public often ignores fish consumption advisories, and the reasons for non-compliance are explored in this paper. Risk assessors acknowledge that there is a social amplification (intensification) of risk where the public perceive a risk as much more severe than do the, experts' or scientists, and this social ampliflcation is a function of the interaction of hazards with social, psychological and cultural processes. I propose that non-compliance of consumption advisories occurs because of the deamplification of risk in hazards that are familiar and enjoyed, such as fishing and fish consumption. Although the public are generally aware of consumption advisories, they continue to believe the fish are safe to eat, and a high percentage eat the fish they catch. Unlike the amplification of risk, the deamplification of risk from fishing in the face of consumption advisories is partly legitimized by the actions of some governmental agencies, as well as by society at large. It is suggested that a variety of economic benefits and social institutions lead to a discounting of consumption advisories, and the delayed nature of adverse health effects allows for additional disregard. Further, it is suggested that co-management of the risk from contaminated fish would increase public involvement, and therefore compliance.

CRESP: A new approach to stakeholder-responsive, cost-effective research Author: Goldstein, B.D., Other Author(s): C. Powers, J. Moore, and E. Faustman. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Eur. J. Oncol. 4(5):537-540. Abstract: University research into environmental and occupational health problems typically represents a synthesis of overall needs identified by a governmental funding agency, coupled with investigator-initiated responses. In this usual approach it is the government agency that integrates the research findings for use in decision making. Further, when technical information is needed more rapidly than the multiyear time frame usual in investigator-initiated research, the contracting community is preferred over university-based research. The Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stakeholder Participation (CRESP) in essence is an experimental approach to altering this typical approach. CRESP is funded through a five-year cooperative agreement by the US Department of Energy (DOE) to perform research on risks related to the environmental management of atom bomb production sites. Projected costs to clean up what is known as the "cold war mortgage" range upwards of $300 billion. DOE's tradition of secrecy has led it not to be trusted by local communities and other stakeholders and has made it difficult to obtain agreement on the extent of the risk or appropriate approach to environmental remediation, including issues related to worker risk. CRESP consists primarily of faculty at the University of Washington School of Public Health and Community Medicine, and of the Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute in New Jersey. CRESPs primary approach is to determine research needs through working with stakeholders, including local citizens, environmental groups, labour unions, the business community and local, state and federal agencies. Researchers at the two university programmes are primarily self-selected to work on projects of interest to them that are derived through stakeholder interactions. Wherever possible, stakeholders are involved in research design and are early targets of approaches aimed at explaining the experimental findings. The usual research blind alleys can be identified and terminated more quickly than with standard investigator-initiated funding approaches. Initial integration of the findings is performed by the CRESP research, including management board members who have had significant experience in managing government research and regulatory programmes. The CRESP approach has been successful in terms of the usual metrics of peer reviewed publications. More importantly, there are early indications that its research has been effective in providing credible information of use in dealing with risk-related issues as DOE sites. However, further assessment is needed to fully investigate the value added of CRESP as compared to usual approaches to stakeholder-based research.

CRESP: An experiment in developing research responsive to stakehholder concerns Author: Goldstein, B.D. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Risk Policy Report - November 20, 39-41. Abstract: Recently, Terry Yosie and Timothy Herbst released a report that provides those of us engaged in environmental policy and emerging risk issues with a valuable description and critique of stakeholder processes in environmental decision-making. In a related activity, my colleagues and I at the Consortium for Risk Evaluation with Stakeholder Participation (CRESP) are testing the potential for providing the science underlying effective environmental decision-making, by working closely with stakeholders. Before discussing our specific experience with stakeholder processes, let me first provide some background on CRESP, whose governing concept was derived in part from the recommendations of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) Committee to Review Risk Management in the Deparunent of Energy's (DOE) Environmental Remediation Program. Their document "Building Consensus," focused on the potential value of an independent credible, integrating academic program. Our consortium consists of the Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, a joint program of Rutgers University and Robert Wood Johnson Medical School; the University of Washington, School of Public Health and Community Medicine; and the Institute for Evaluating Health Risks. CRESP has focused its activities at the Hanford and Savannah River sites, but has become involved at other DOE sites as its expertise has matured.

Critical radionuclide/Critical pathway analysis for the US Department of Energy's Savannah River site Author: Jannik, G.T. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Risk Analysis 19(3): 417-426. Abstract: Many different radionuclides have been released to the environment from the Savannah River Site (SRS) during the facility's operational history. However, as shown by this analysis, only a small number of the released radionuclides have been significant contributors to potential doses and risks to off-site people. This article documents the radiological critical contan-iinant/critical pathway analysis performed for SRS. If site missions and operations remain constant over the next 30 years, only tritium oxide releases are projected to exceed a maximally exposed individual (MEI) risk of 1.OE-06 for either the airborne or liquid pathways. The critical exposure pathways associated with site airborne releases are inhalation and vegetation consumption, whereas the critical exposure pathways associated with liquid releases are drinking water and fish consumption. For the SRS-specific, nontypical exposure pathways (i.e., recreational fishing and deer and hog hunting), cesium-137 is the critical radio nuclide.

Dealing with Hanford’s lethal legacy Author: van Belle, G., Other Author(s): G.S. Omenn, E.M. Faustman, C.W. Powers, J.A. Moore, and B.D. Goldstein. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1996 Citation: Washington Public Health 14(Spring): 16-21. Abstract: When the history of the twentieth century is written 100 years from now, one of the chapters almost certainly will deal with nuclea fission and its applications in wvar and peace. We suspect that most of this chapter will focus on military applications, in particular, the frantic international reces to develop atomic and hydrogen bombs, the secrecy surrounding their production, the people, land, water, and natural resources involved, and the consequent hazardous wastes. The scientific legacy of the twentieth century will include the radioactive sites at I Hanford (Washington), Rocky Flats (Colorado), Savannah River (Georgia), and numerous other places. Unlike the seven wonders the ancient world, these places will not become tourist attractions, instead, they should be made inaccessible for at least 3,000 years. Another nuclear-age legacy is secrecy as a way of life. Secrecy emphasizes separation of tasks, exculsionary dissemination of information, and a professional code of silence. These ingrained patterns need to be reversed. Although scientists have been willing participants in the secrecy, they are aware, perhaps more than other groups, that secrecy ultimately is inimical to good science. Efforts at nuclear waste cleanup have accelerated since the end of the Cold War. A change in national perspective dates back to the 1989 disintegration of the Soviet Union. In that year we finally stopped producing nuclear weapons. Since then the realization of the magnitude of the lethal legacy has become more widespread. The switch from production to clean-up has accelerated but has been restrained by institutional patterns: it is no small matter to change the course of the ship of state - especially if there is disagreement among some of the crew, but in the last six years the commitment to cleanup has increased. Cleanup options range between two extremes. The first is, "do nothing." This option is unacceptable because doing nothing will worsen the problem as buildings and structures deteriorate and contaminants spread through the soil, air, and groundwater. The other extreme - to restore all facilities and places to pre-1940 conditions - is also unacceptable because certain sites should not be used for thousands of years. Also, the financial resources needed for this process are enormous and rising. Just the intermediate effort built into present commitments and plans would cost $250 billion nationwide by 1990 estimates. More recent estimates for the cost of environmental recovery from the Cold War are as high as $2 trillion.

Debating uncertainty: Point-counterpoint. Routine uncertainty analysis: Certainly not Author: Goldstein, B.D., Other Author(s): and S.C. Lewis. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1995 Citation: Risk Policy Report 2(8): 32,34-35. Abstract: The call for one-handed scientists is more than a jest. The original quotation has been attributed to Senator Muskie who at the time of the 1970 Clean Air Act stated that he was tired of scientists saving on the one hand this and on the other hand that. It is hard to imagine what Senator Muskie would think of the demand for the routine use of formal numerical uncertainty analysis as an inherent part of risk assessment. Presenting the risk manager with a range of numbers to chose from would more likely be considered obfuscation than enlightenment. In the following piece I argue that routine uncerainty analysis leading to a range of risk numbers is of little or no value to decision making, would contribute as much or more to problems in risk communication than it will cure, and is not readily doable. Let me start by emphasizing that I fully support the qualitative description of significant sources of uncertainty in any, risk assessment. Further, there are limited situations in which more than one risk number would be very useful to characterize risk, for example in the case of chloroform where the cancer risk potency number differs drastically depending upon whether the studies were on animals given chloroform in oil or in water. Qualitative or semiquantitative uncertainty analysis, as a part of sensitivity analysis. can also be useful in determining which portion of a risk assessment would benefit most from further research or anaiysis.

Defining and measuring river health Author: Karr, J.R. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Freshwater Biology 41: 221-234. Abstract: Society benefits immeasurably from rivers. Yet over the past century, humans have changed rivers dramatically. Do those changes mean that people have degraded river health? The answer depends on whom you ask. To irrigators, rivers are healthy if there is enough water for their fields. For a power utility, rivers are healthy if there is enough water to turn the turbines. For a drinking-water utility, rivers are healthy if there is enough pure, or purifiable, water throughout the year. To sport or commercial fishers, rivers are healthy if there are fin-fish and shellfish to harvest. For recreationists, rivers are healthy if swimming, water skiing, or boating do not make people ill. But every one of these perceptions is only part of the picture. Each trivializes the other uses of the river - not to mention non-human aspects of the river itself - while assigning value only to its own desires. To protect all river uses and values, should we not seek broader definitions of river health?

Description of factors affecting hazardous waste workers' use of respiratory protective equipment Author: Salazar, M.K., Other Author(s): T. Takaro, C. Connon, and K. Ertell. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 14(7): 1-9. Abstract: This article describes the first phase of a study that was designed to gain an understanding of hazardous waste workers' attitudes and beliefs about the use of respiratory protective equipment. Exploratory, open-ended interviews were conducted among 28 respirator users at a US Department of Energy facility. Subjects were asked to describe their knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about their risks to hazards at their worksites and to discuss their use of respiratory protective equipment. A detailed content analysis of the interviews resulted in the generation of a taxonomy of issues and concerns which fell into three general categories: 1) Knowledge, Beliefs, and Attitudes, 2),Physical and Psychological Effects, and 3) External Influences. Knowledge, Beliefs, and Attitudes included Training, Fit Testing, Medical Clearance, Work Exposures, Respirator Use, and Vulnerability to Disease. Physical and Psychological Effects included Somatic/Health Effects, Personal Comfort, Visual Effects, Fatigue, Communication, and Anxiety. External Influences included Structural Environment, Quality and Availability of Equipment, Other PPES, Co-Worker Influence, Supervisor Influence, and Organizational Culture. The findings from this study have important implications to training and education programs. Effective respiratory protection programs depend on a knowledge of the factors that affect workers' use of equipment. This study suggests that efforts to assure equipment comfort and fit, to assist workers who see and hear less well as a result of their equipment, and to develop strategies to allay worker anxiety when wearing equipment should all be components of a program. An organizational culture that supports and abets the appropriate use of equipment is also a critical element in a successful program. The occurrence of occupational disease is a major problem at many work sites in this country. It is estimated that 20 million U.S. workers are regularly exposed to dusts, gases, fumes, and radiological substances that can cause airway and other systemic diseases. Hazardous waste workers are among 7 to 10 million workers who rely on personal protective equipment (PPE) in the form of respirators as their primary means of protection from workplace hazards. Unfortunately, as demonstrated by recent statistics, the use of respiratory protection has not been wholly successful. Between 1968 and 1992,100,890 U.S. residents died from pneumoconiosis resulting from exposures to asbestos, coal dust, silica, and other agents, the majority of which occurred as a result of workplace exposures. Furthermore, nearly 30 percent of adult asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ftiay be at least partially attributable to occupational exposures. Inhalation of toxic substances can also lead to serious neurological, renal, hepatic, and other systemic effects.

Determinants of perceptions of trust, control and neighborhood quality among residents surrounding the Savannah River Site Author: Williams, B., Other Author(s): M. Greenberg, and S. Brown. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Environment and Behavior 31(3): 354-371. Abstract: The public is becoming increasingly distrustful of hazardous waste management activities. However, public trust is a requisite condition for effective environmental management of hazardous waste sites. Without trust, it is unlikely that such institutions can effectively convince the public that a site is safe and can be reused. The authors of this article conducted a study of the social, economic, psychological, demographic, and political factors that may affect environmental risk assessment and communication at the U.S. Department of Energy's Savannah River Nuclear Weapons Site (SRS). Public trust was a central focus of this study. A population survey was conducted to evaluate the level of public mistrust and correlates of public mistrust among residents living near the SRS. In this sample, several groups of respondents demonstrated high levels of trust. Respondents living upriver from SRS and respondents whose county was economically dependent on SRS voiced high levels of trust. Respondents who were predisposed toward accepting additional hazardous waste or accepting public health risks for economic gain also showed high levels of trust. Findings suggest that public trust is influenced by a variety of factors including personal traits, experiences, and economic needs.

Determinants of trust perceptions among residents surrounding the Savannah River nuclear weapons site Author: Willliams, B.L., Other Author(s): S. Brown, and M. Greenberg. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Environment and Behavior 31(3): 354-371. Abstract: The public is becoming increasingly distrustful of hazardous waste management activities. However, public trust is a requisite condition for effective environmental management of hazardous waste sites. Without trust, it is unlikely that such institutions can effectively convince the public that a site is safe and can be reused. Tte authors of this article conducted a study of the social, economic, psycho- logical, demographic, and political factors that may affect environmental risk assess ment and communication at the U.S. Department of Energy's Savannah RiverNuclear Weapons Site (SRS). Public trust was a central focus of this study. A population survey was conducted to evaluate the level of public mistrust and correlates of public mistrust among residents living near the SRS. In this sample, several groups of respondents demonstrated high levels of trust. Respondents living upriver from SRS and respondents whose county was economically dependent an SRS voiced high levels of trust. Respondents who were predisposed toward accepting additional hazardous waste or accepting public health risks for economic gain also showed high levels of trust. Findings suggest that public trust is influenced by a variety of factors includ- ing personal traits, experiences, and economic needs.

Developing and using interaction coding systems for studying groupware use Author: Nyerges, T.L., Other Author(s): T.J. Moore, R. Montejano, and M. Compton. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Human-Computer Interaction 13: 127-165. Abstract: Groupware use can be described as a process of social (human-computer-human) interaction. For example, small groups can use a group-based geographic information system (GIS) to share maps and decision tables during a discussion about selection of sites for salmon habitat improvement in Seattle, Washington. Empirical research about groupware use is intended to improve our understanding of the dynamics of the process, as well as improve our understanding of the development requirements for information technology. Gaining a detailed understanding of the human-computer-human interaction process requires reasonably unobtrusive observation--for example, using video cameras to capture and replay the ebb and flow of interaction. From each replay of videotape we can abstract a different research view, hence characterize the ebb and flow of interaction from a different perspective, giving us deeper insight into the interaction. Interpreting and synthesizing the raw observations to make sense of what went on during interaction" can be accomplished through the use of interaction coding systems. In this article, we report on the development of three interaction coding systems that were created for studying the use of a group-based, research prototype GIS software, called Spatial Group Choice. We wrote this article to help researchers compare approaches to the development of coding systems and compare the value of their use. Despite previous use of coding systems by others, there are no detailed reports in the literature of how researchers devised their coding systems. We discuss in detail the process of creating and using such coding systems, describing the advantages and disadvantages of performing interaction coding to foster an understanding of group dynamics in different settings and for designing new groupware.

Development of expectations of larval amphibian assemblage structure in southeastern depression wetlands Author: Snodgrass, J.W., Other Author(s): A. L. Bryan, Jr., and J. Burger Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Ecological Applications,10(4): 1219-1229. Abstract: Abstract. We surveyed larval amphibians and fish in 25 relatively pristine depression wetlands on the upper Atlantic coastal plain of South Carolina to examine relationships among hydiroperiod length, fish presence/absence and larval amphibian assemblage structure. Our goals were to test the application of general models of lentic community structure to Southeastern depression wetlands and to develop expectations of larval amphibian assemblage structure at reference sites. Amphibian species richness showed a unimodal pattern along a hydroperiod gradient, with wetlands that contained water for 8-10 mo/yr having the highest species richness. Wetlands that contained water for longer periods (i.e., dried only during severe drought) often contained fish and had relatively low amphibian species richness. Most species occurred along a restricted portion of the hydroperiod gradient, and some species were found almost exclusively in wetlands with fish. Associations among the occurrence of species led to relatively discrete breaks in assemblage structure along the hydropeiriod gradient. Canonical correspondence analysis of catch-per-unit-effort data identified four groups of wetlands with similar assemblage structure: (1) short (drying in spring), (2) medium (drying in summer), and (3) long (drying in fall or semi-annually) hydroperiod wetlands without fish; and (4) long hydroperiod wetlands with fish. Our results suggest that general models of community structure in lentic systems are applicable to southeastern isolated wetlands and-should form the basis for developing expectations of larval amphibian assemblage structure in these systems.

Disposition of butadiene epoxides in Sprague-Dawley rats following exposures to 8000 ppm 1,3-butadiene: Comparisons with tissue epoxide concentrations following low-level exposures Author: Thornton-Manning, J.R., Other Author(s): A.R. Dahl, M.L. Allen, W.E. Bechtold, W.C. Griffith, and R.F. Henderson. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Toxological Sciences 41: 167-173. Abstract: 1,3-Butadiene (BD), a compound used extensively in the rubber industry, is a potent carcinogen in mice and a weak carcinogen in rats in chronic carcinogenicity bioassays. While many chemicals are known to alter their own metabolism after repeated exposures, the effect of exposure prior to BD on its in vivo metabolism has not been reported. The purpose of the present research was to examine the effect of repeated exposure to BD on tissue concentrations of two mutagenic BD metabolites, butadiene monoepoxide (BDO) and butadiene diepoxide (BDO2). Concentrations of BD epoxides were compared in several tissues of rats and mice following a single exposure or ten repeated exposures to a target concentration of 62.5 ppm BD. Female Sprague-Dawley rats and female B6C3F, mice were exposed to BD for 6 h or 6 h x 10 days. BDO and BDO2 were quantified in blood and several other tissues following preparation by cryogenic vacuum distillation and analysis by multidimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Blood and lung BDO concentrations did not differ significantly (P < 0.05) between the two exposure regimens in either species. Following multiple exposures to BD, BDO levels were 5- and 1.6-fold higher (P < 0.05) in mammary tissue and 2- and 1.4-fold higher in fat tissue of rats and mice, respectively, as compared with single exposures. BDO2 levels also increased in rat fat tissue following multiple exposures to BD. However, in mice, levels of this metabolite decreased by 15% in fat, by 28% in mammary tissue and by 34% in lung tissue following repeated exposures to BD. The finding that the mutagenic epoxide BDO, which is the precursor to the highly mutagenic BDO2, accumulates in rodent fat may be important in assessing the potential risk to humans from inhalation of BD.

Dose responses from inhaled monodisperse aerosols of 244Cm203 in the lung, liver and skeleton of F344 rats and comparison with 239Pu02 Author: Lundgren, D.L., Other Author(s): F.F Hahn, W.W Carlton, W.C. Griffith, R.A. Guilmette, and N.A. Gillett. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Radiation Research 147: 598-612. Abstract: The purpose of this study was to obtain information on the alpha-particle dose-response relationship of 244CM in rats. Rats were exposed briefly by inhalation to graded levels Of monodisperse aerosols of 244CM2o3 heat-treated at 1150'C. The initial lung burden (ILB) of each animal was determined by the use of the y-ray-emitting radionuclide 243CM in the aerosols. Seven groups of 84-day-old F344/Crl rats (a total of 637 males and 645 females) were exposed once to 244CM2O3 or sham-exposed to filtered ambient air. Mean ILBs of all rats per group ranged from 0.51 ± 0.17 (±SD) to 240 ± 82 kBq kg-1 body weight. Mean lifetime alpha-particle doses to the lungs per group ranged from 0.20 ± 0.069 (±SD) to 36 ± 6.5 Gy. After death, each rat was radiographed and necropsied. Dose-related increases occurred in incidences of benign and malignant lung neoplasms, except for the groups of rats with higher mean ILBs that were examined histologically (98 ± 18 and 240 ± 77 kBq kg-1 body weight) in which survival was markedly decreased. Also, average alpha-particle doses of 0.0014 ± 0.00058 (±SD) to 0.17 ± 0.091 Gy and 0.018 ± 0.007 to 1.6 ± 1.1 Gy were also absorbed by the liver and skeleton, respectively, in the rats in the different exposure groups. Primary liver neoplasms occurred in several rats. However, the incidence of these lesions was not related to dose. Increased incidences of bone neoplasms occurred only in rats receiving higher doses to the skeleton. Excess numbers of rats with lung neoplasms per 104 Gy to the lung per group ranged from 760 ± 430 (±SE) at a mean dose of 0.48 Gy to 84 ± 16 at a mean dose of 37 Gy. Risk factors for the lowest and highest ILB kg-1 body weight groups were not considered reliable because of large errors associated with these calculations and the life-span shortening in the highest ILB key-1 group. Inhaled244CmO3 appeared to be about 50% less effective as a lung carcinogen in rats compared to 239PuO2 at similar doses.

Downsizing US Department of Energy facilities: Evaluating alternatives for the region surrounding the Savannah River Nuclear Weapons Site region Author: Greenberg, M., Other Author(s): M. Frisch, L. Solitare, and K. Lowrie. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Evaluation and Program Planning 23: 255-265 Abstract: The economic impacts of reduced spending by the US Department of Energy (DOE) are estimated for the period 2000-2035 for the region surrounding the Savannah River Nuclear Weapons Site in South Carolina and for the states of South Carolina and Georgia. The detrimental economic impact, which reaches more than 20% of jobs, and personal income in the multi-county area immediately surrounding the site, can be reduced by on- and off-site investments. The impacts of building an accelerator to produce tritium and to destroy extremely dangerous nuclear wastes, and of investing in the region's educational system and infrastructure are explored as illustrations. The findings imply a need for considerable thought about what kinds of investments should be made in the region by an interdepartmental group rather than relying solely on the DOE.

Ecological effects and biomonitoring for mercury in tropical ecosystems Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Dordrecht 97(3-4): 265-272. Abstract: Considerable attention has been devoted to monitoring heavy metals in temperate zones of the world, largely due to the concentration of industries and populations in these regions. With increases in global transport of mercury, it has become important to examine the effects of mercury on components of tropical ecosystems, and to design biomonitoring schemes to assess environmental changes involving mercury. Tropical ecosystems differ from temperate ones in fundamental ways, including increased species diversity, and decreased niche width, spatial heterogeneity, food web lengths and complexity, productivity and soil laterization. Because of these differences, the fate and transport of mercury may differ in temperate and tropical systems, and it is suggested in this paper that bird feathers be used as a biomonitoring tool to assess broad-scale trends in mercury exposure, as well as being indicative of adverse effects on the birds themselves. In many ecosystems, some species of birds occupy top trophic levels. It is apparent that the mercury level in feathers of some tropical birds are as high as those from temperature regions, exceeding levels associated with adverse effects in laboratory studies.

Ecological risk assessment at the Department of Energy: An evolving process Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: International Journal of Toxicology 18: 149-155. Abstract: The United States Department of Energy (DOE) has facilities in 34 states, and many of these have chemical or radiological contamination that provides a potential risk to human or ecological health. Over the next few decades many of these sites will be cleaned up, and ecological risk assessment will be one tool used to make decisions about remediation and future land use. The DOE has developed an overall strategy for making remediation decisions that involves using risk assessment, with stakeholder input, although the final decisions are the Department's. The key elements of its ecological risk assessments involve valuing the severity and likelihood of occurrence of adverse ecological effects. It Is currently using a process that incorporates descriptions of the environinenw risk, and valuations of the severity and likelihood of an adverse outcome before, during, and after any remedial activity. The primary difficulty with the current DOE approach to risk has been a failure to use existing information to identify either species of concern or unique habitats at risk, and a lack of uniformity across the DOE complex. Nonetheless, the inclusion of ecological risk assessment in the decision-making process will help achieve one of the new missions of DOE: the protection and maintenance of blodiversity and healthy ecosystems at sites under Its control.

Economic fallout Author: Lowrie, K., Other Author(s): M. Greenberg, and M. Frisch. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy 14(2): 119-125. Abstract: The end of the Cold War has dramatically decreased the need for continued nuclear weapons production in the United States. The communities around the largest of the weapons production and research sites owned by the Department of Energy are now facing the socioeconomic impacts caused by downsizing, mission changes, and in some cases, eventual closure of the sites. The resultant job losses reduce local incomes, property values, retail sales, and housing demand and cause other economic stresses that damages the fiscal health of some of these communities. DOE owns some 140 sites in 38 U.S. states and territories, encompassing 2.3 million acres and containing tens of thousands of buildings and structures. This weapons complex employs more than 100,000 workers in various activities, ranging from continuing research and production at some sites to cleanup of contaminated water, soil, and buildings at other sites. Nearly all of the major weapons facilities were built in the 1940s and 1950s in locations that were relatively remote and rural, for reasons of national security. During Cold War production, communities that were supported almost totally by the nuclear weapons industry developed near the entrances to these facilities. When a large industrial facility lays off workers, local communities often suffer economic decline.1 In general, the smaller the local community and the further removed the facility is from metropolitan areas, the larger are the anticipated effects.2 Towns and counties near U.S. nuclear weapons production sites are like company towns in their heavy reliance on DOE jobs to maintain their economies. These communities have additional problems to confront, however. In the past they were forced to react to decisions made in secret because of security considerations.3 Moreover, because some of the communities are rural, they often lack the professional expertise and budgets required to provide services, impose controls, or interact fruitfully with a large federal bureaucracy. Closing a massive nuclear facility is also more expensive and takes more time than closing an ordinary private plant. Remedial actions will be required for several decades and prospects for private reuse are problematic at best.

Economic Impact of Accelerated Cleanup on Regions Surrounding the U.S. DOE’s Major Nuclear Weapons Sites Author: Greenberg, M., Other Author(s): L. Solitare, M. Frisch and K. Lowrie. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Risk Analysis 19(4): 635-647. Abstract: The regional economic impacts of the U.S. Department of Energy's accelerated environmental cleanup plan are estimated for the major nuclear weapons sites in Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Washington. The analysis shows that the impact falls heavily on the three relatively rural reasons around the Savannah River (SC), Hanford (WA), and Idaho National Engineering- and Environmental Laboratory (ID) sites. A less aggressive phase-down of environmental management funds and separate funds to invest in education and infrastructure in the regions slightly buffer the impacts on jobs. personal income, and gross regional product. Policy options open to the federal, state, and local goverments are discussed.

Ecosystem health: The concept, the ISEH, and the important tasks ahead Author: Rapport, D.J., Other Author(s): G. Bohm, D. Buckingham, J. Cairns, Jr., R. Costanza, J.R. Karr, H.A.M. de Kruijf, R. Levins, A.J. McMichael, N.O. Nielson, and W.G. Whitford. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1999 Citation: Ecosystem Health 5: 82-90. Abstract: The International Society for Ecosystem Health (ISEH) came into existence at a time when it was rapidly becoming apparent that the earth's ecosystems were failing, both locally and globally (Tolba et al. 1992). Despite worldwide attention drawn to the consequences of ecosystem degration, and subsequent international agreements and treaties respecting the importance of maintaining the health and integrity of the earth's ecosystems, environmental degradation has continued and even ccelerated (Vitousek et al. 1997; Ullsten 1998; Salim el at. 1999). ISEH was conceived to engage scholars from a variety of fields to bridge or even transcend the natural, social, and health sciences. A primary goal was to provide the conceptual and methodological foundations for assessing the condition of the earth's ecosystems. The idea for forming an international society around the concept of "ecosystem health" arose out of an interdisciplinary workshop on diagnostic indicators of ecosystem condition (Ecosystem Medicine: Developing a Diagnostic Capability. Allerton Park, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana 1991). Participants and founding members of ISEH were Val Beasley (University of Illinois), Robert Costanza (University of Maryland), David Cox (University of Illinois), Tony Hayes (University of Guelph), David Rapport (Statistics Canada), David Schaeffer (Eco Health Research, Inc.), Christian Thorpe (Kaiser Permanente Medical Center), and David Waltner-Toews (University of Guelph). Founders were an eclectic group of transcdisciplinary thinkers from the fields of medicine, veterinary medicine, ecology, and economics who had come together to explore potential trandsfers from the fields of human and veterinary medicine into ecology. They agreed that there was a need to carry on these discussions in a wider forum, and that the International Society for Ecosystem Health should be formed for this purpose. At that time, several workshop/symposia had already been held on the topic, and others were being planned. These included an Aspen Innstitute-sponsored workshop on ecosystem health at Wye, Maryland (October 1990), a symposium on "Defining Ecosystem Health: Science, Economics, or Ethics?" sponsored by The American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. (February 1991), a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) workshop at the N.E. Science Center Narragan- sett Laboratory, Narragansett, RI (1992) on "The Health of Large Marine Ecosystems," a NATO- sponsored Advanced Research Workshop on "Evaluating and Monitoring the Health of Large-Scale Ecosystems," Chateau Montebello, Quebec (October 1993), and a Hastings Center workshop on the philosophical and ethical dimensions of ecosystem health (1993). The inaugural event for ISEH, however, was the 1st International Symposium on Ecosystem Health and Medicine (Ottawa,June 19-23, 1994), co-organized by ISEH and the University of Guelph. With more than 800 participants from 33 countries, this event brought the concept of eco- system health to the attention of the international scientific community (Shrader-Frechette 1994). The opening keynote address was delivered by the late Henry Kendall on the topic of environmental and population challenges: global prospects. Other keynote addresses explored the interfaces between disciplines from ecology and public health, to environmental management, ethics, and ecological economics. These included, among others, presentations by Robert Costanza (Mageau et al. 1995), David Ehrenfeld (Ehrenfeld 1995), Richard Levins (Levins 1995), Tony McMichael (McMichael & Martens 1995), Eugene Odum (Odum 1995), David Rapport (Rapport 1995), Margaret Somerville (Somerville 1995), and M. Gordon Wolman (Wolman 1995). Collectively, participants represented a wide range of disciplines including anthropology, economics, ecology, environmental management, epidemiology, ethics, law, philosophy, public health, sociology, and veterinary medicine. Although the participants came from varied backgrounds, a shared belief emerged that collaborative efforts that crossed disciplinary boundaries were essential to arrive at a deeper understanding of regional environmental challenges and solutions. Understanding the forces of transformation of the earth's ecosystems calls for a holistic approach in which humans are "part of" and not "apart from" the ecosystem (Cairns 1994; Bormann 1996).

Effect of hydrogen on reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes Author: Ballapragada, B.S., Other Author(s): H.D. Stensel, J.A. Puhakka, and J.F. Ferguson. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1997 Citation: Environmental Science and Technology 31(6): 1728-1734. Abstract: A methanogenic fluidized bed reactor (FBR) fed with lactate and tetrachloroethene (PCE) was operated for 14 months to study the effect of electron donor and PCE loading on chloroethene dechlorination rates. Lactate was fed continu ously at 200 mg/L (2.2 mmol/L), and the influent PCE feed concentration was increased stepwise from 3.5 to 160 mol/L. Vinyl chloride (VC) and ethene accounted for 80% and 20%, respectively, of the PCE dechlorination. Batch tests with various electron donors showed that H2, propionate, and lactate supported dechlorination of PCE, trichloroethene (TCE), cis-dichloroethene (c-DCE), and VC, whereas no dechlorination was observed with acetate or in the absence of an electron donor. Different short-term steady H2 concentrations were obtained by adjusting the FBR influent lactate feed concentration, and the effect of H2 concentra tion on the rate of chloroethene dechlorination was determined. Dechlorination rates for PCE, TCE, c-DCE, and VC showed a Michaelis-Menten relationship with H2 partial pressure. The half-velocity coefficients for H2 utilization by dechlorinators ranged from 12 to 28 ppm for the chloroethenes and are at least an order of magnitude lower than values reported for methanogens. This implies that dechlorinating bacteria can out-compete methanogens for H2 utilization at low H2 concentration.

Effects of incubation temperature on hatchling pine snakes: Implications for survival Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Behav Ecol Sociobiol 43: 11-18. Abstract: Incubation temperature in ectothermic vertebrates affects incubation periods, and in some reptiles it affects sex ratios and behavior. I present evidence that incubation temperature affects emergence and post-hatching behavior of pine snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus) that could influence survival in the weeks before hibernation. Hatchlings incubated at low temperatures remained in the nest longer, had fewer alternate nest openings, and fewer underground tunnels to hide in than did hatchlings from warmer temperatures. These conditions could render hatchlings from low temperature nests more vulnerable to predation because, if a nest is opened, they are not inside tunnels where they would be protected. Hatchlings from nests incubated at low temperatures took longer to find shade during a thermoregulation test, and were less likely to move about in search of other cover than were those from higher incubation temperature artificial nests. Similarly, hatchlings from nests with low incubation temperatures were less responsive to a predatory stimulus and had a longer latency to strike than other hatchlings. Taken together, hatchlings from nests with low incubation temperatures might be less able to avoid predators and find shade than those from nests incubated at higher temperatures, and thus could be expected to have lower survival in nature.

Effects of lead on behavior, growth and survival of hatchling Slider Turtles (Trachemys scripta) Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): C. Carruth-Hinchey, J. Ondroff, M. McMahon, W. Gibbons and M. Gochfeld. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 55: 495-502. Abstract: In this study the effects of lead on behavioral development of hatchling slider turtles (Trachemys scripta) from the Savannah River Site, near Aiken, SC, were examined. It was of interest to determine whether dose or size affects survival, growth, or behavior. Hatchlings from 1995 showed no significant differences in growth, survival, or behavior between control and lead-injected animals at a dose of 0.05 and 0.1 mg/g (n = 10 per group). In 1996, 48 hatchlings were divided into four groups injected with 0 (control), 0.25, 1, or 2.5 mg/g lead. Few significant differences occurred in growth of size as a function of lead treatment at 4 mo of age, but survival declined markedly as a function of lead dose. Righting response was significantly impaired by lead, time to right was directly related to lead dose. Size also affected behavior, larger hatchlings turned over more quickly and reached cover sooner than did smaller hatchlings.

Effects of lead on birds (LARIDAE): A review of laboratory and field studies Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): and M. Gochfeld Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 3:59 -78, 2000 Abstract:

Effects of lead on larids: A review of laboratory and field studies Author: Burger, J., Other Author(s): and M. Gochfeld. Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 2000 Citation: Journal Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B 3: 59-78. Abstract:

Effects of lead on sibling recognition in young Herring Gulls Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: Toxicological Sciences. 43: 155-160. Abstract: Lead exposure early in life affects physiology, behavior, and cognitive development in humans and other animals. In gulls, lead also disrupts parental recognition, leading to potential decreases in survival in wild populations. In this paper, young herring gulls, Larus argentatus, were used to examine the effect of lead on sibling recognition. Each of 80 one-day-old herring gull chicks was randomly assigned to either a control group or a lead treatment group that received a single dose of lead acetate solution (100 mg/kg) at day 2. Matched controls were injected with isotonic saline at the same age. At 10 days of age, there was no demonstrable sibling recognition in control chicks, but recognition was clearly developed by 15 days of age. Lead disrupted sibling recognition, and there still was no evidence of sibling recognition in lead-injected chicks by 26 days of age. Time to respond initially increased and then decreased with age in both control and lead-injected chicks. Control chicks that correctly reached their siblings did so in significantly less time than did lead-injected chicks, and they remained closer to their siblings at the end of the test. These experiments clearly demonstrate that lead disrupts sibling recognition in herring gull chicks, delays the time to respond and to reach their siblings, and increases the final distance chicks are from their calling siblings. In nature, lead-impaired chicks would be unable to use siblings as a cue enabling them to find their nests and might suffer higher mortality from territorial adults and chicks, as well as from cannibalistic adults.

Effects of motorboats and personal watercraft on flight behavior over a colony of common terns Author: Burger, J. Other Author(s): Document Type: CRESP Published Manuscripts Publication Date: 1998 Citation: The Condor 100: 528-534. Abstract: I examined the flight behavior of Common Terns (Sterna hirundo) over a nesting colony in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey in 1997. I used the number of birds flying over the colony to test the hypothesis that there were no differences in flight behavior as a function of presence and type of craft (motor boat, personal watercraft). For the overall model, 66% of the variation in the number of terns flying over the colony was explained by breeding period, type of craft,speed, route (established channel or elsewhere), the interaction of route and speed, and time of day. However, for the early stage of the reproductive cycle, type of craft, speed, and route explained